Learning and Memory
(notes from grade 11; memory at a glance)
| Memory | Process of recording any learning that takes place and allows later access to the same as and when reqd Memory = encode, store and retrieve info Memory = storage and retrieval of info | |
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| Relation bw mem and learning | Without memory, learning is not possible. Without learning, nothing to remember. Memory = storage and retrieval of info. Learning = trace formation | |
| Stage Model | Encoding -> Storage -> Retrieval. (Recording information, saving information, and recovering information) | |
| Encoding | Sensory info converted into a form that can be entered into memory traces. Info -> visual images called 'iconic images' or auditory codes called 'echonic images'. Olfactory, cutaneous, gustatory. | |
| Storage | Learning brings about changes in neurons in brain called neural changes = engrams / mem traces. Activated when memory needs to be recalled | |
| Retrieval | Process by which info stored in memory is LOCATED for use. If info =/= encoded properly / stored adequately, then retrieval of mem won't be correct | |
| Who made modal model? | Atkinson and Shiffrin | |
| Modal Model flowchart | Sensory Register -> Short term memory -> Long term memory | |
| Modal Model time thingy | Sensory reg - extemely short interval, less than a second. Short term memory 15-20 seconds. Long term memory - Almost permanent; procedural, episodic, declarative | |
| Types of memory | Sensory, short-term / working, long-term. Long term div into declarative and procedural memory. Declarative can be div into semantic and episodic memory. Other types : explicit, implicit, autobiographical, prospective | |
| Sensory Memory | "snapshot", stores information that is sensory in nature (visual, auditory, etc). Replaced by new one / destroyed unless passed on to some other type of memory | |
| Short term memory | Sensory stimuli is coded acoustically - converted into sounds. Can hold 7+/- 2 chunks and 15-20 seconds. STM -> LTM. Goes to rehearsal buffer. If it is rehearsed / processed goes to LTM. Otherwise forgotten. Eg - repeating number over and over until writing it down. As soon as we write, we forget. After purpose served, gone. If elaborative rehearsal, ie information is organized in some fashion, then LTM. Working memory. Three parts (Alan Baddeley). | |
| Chunk | Meaningful grouping of RELATED information in STM. Helps store more information. Also used in mnemonics | |
| Parts of STM | Central Executive and sub components - visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop | |
| Central executive (STM) | coordinates material to focus during decision-making and reasoning. Two sub parts - VS and PL | |
| Visuospatial Sketchpad (STM) | Visual and Spatial information | |
| Phonological Loop (STM) | Holds and organizes info related to speech, words and numbers | |
| Why is STM called working memory? | - organizes info to be stored in LTM -organizes information to be retrieved from LTM for use with cognitive functions such as perception, decision making, reasoning. Info from LTM is brought back to STM for this purpose. This combined with info already in STM helps us understand obj better | |
| Long term memory | Info that is rehearsed well passes onto LTM. Storage is more or less permanent. Unlimited capacity. Classified, organized and stored like library Can be classified into declarative and procedural memory | |
| Declarative memory | Factual information like names, faces, dates. div into semantic and episodic | |
| Procedural memory | Skills and habits | |
| Memory flowchart |
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| semantic memory | gk. rules of grammar and logic | |
| constructive memory | info from small pieces made into a meaningful whole. char of semantic mem | |
| episodic memory | autobiographical mem. personal experiences and events | |
| Retrieval types | Recognition and Recall | |
| Recognition | Stating whether we have memory of an event, person, place, etc. Eg- identifying a suspect in a police lineup. Memory traces for that info are activated again if we are familiar with the person or answer | |
| Recall | Retrieving specific pieces of information on our own. Eg - Witness describing a thief and his appearance. We use retrieval cues | |
| Retrieval cues | stimuli that we use to help remember info we feel unable to recall otherwise. Can be external or internal. | |
| External cue is aka | context dependent cue | |
| External Cue | context dependent cue. Related to ext env. Eg - Place, smell, sound | |
| Internal Cue aka | State dependant cue | |
| Internal cue | State dependent cue. Internal factors like mood, emotion, nature, illness | |
| More types of memory | Explicit, Implicit. Flashbulb memories, autobiographical memories, prospective memory | |
| Explicit Memory | Intentional or conscious recollection of info. Remembering dates and events | |
| Implicit memory | Not directly aware. Can affect subsequent performance and behaviour. Eg - stu draws margin but doesnt remember who taught him or when | |
| Flashbulb memories | Vivid recollection of shocking or tragic events. Chance that facts get mixed with a little fiction. Special place in memory | |
| Autobiographical Memory | Episodic memory about events we have experienced | |
| Prospective Memory | Planning ahead for what we need to do later. Eg - alarm clock | |
| Mnemonics | Greek for memory techniques. Improve our ability to recall 1. Use of mnemonic devices. Flow charts, diagrams, charts, etc. 2. Organisation. Large mass can be shaped into a small meaningful structure. Eg VIBGYOR 3. Association. Newly acquired info is associated with readily available cues. 4. Method of Loci. Series of places which are habitually visited. Place items to be memorized at diff locations along the route |
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| Economic Methods of Memorization | 1) Massed and Spaced learning 2) Part and Whole learning 3) Overlearning 4) Repetition and relearning 5) Rote learning |
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| Forgetting | Important for functioning of memory. Don't need all details; because it'll be a burden. Only summarization of important info. Forgetting unnecessary info is as important as the ability to recall | |
| Causes of forgetting | Lack of attention (sensory register to STM). Did not do required rehearsal (STM to LTM). Lack of proper cues | |
| Definition of Forgetting | Loss, permanent or temporary, of ability to recall or recognize something learnt earlier | |
| Kinds of Forgetting | Normal and Abnormal | |
| Normal Forgetting theories |
Decay theory. Interference - retroactive, proactive. Accident. Emotional Shocks. State dependent memory |
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| Abnormal Forgetting | Alzheimer's, Motivated, Amnesia - retrograde, anterograde, Psychological Amnesia. Drugs, Alcohol, Toxic effects | |
| Decay Theory | Tend to forget with passage of time. Info entering LTM forms traces with constant use; more the use stronger the trace and remembrance. When not used, fades. | |
| Interference | Retroactive and Proactive | |
| Retroactive Interference | New learning interferes with info already present. Eg - | |
| Proactive Interference | Previously learnt information interferes with present learning | |
| Accident | Temp disturbances in blood can cause forgetting. Certain drugs, illnesses, fall from height, blow to the head, concussion | |
| Emotional Shocks | sudden shock eg sudden death can result in diff with retrieval of anxiety inducing information | |
| State Dependent memory | Encode in one emotional state and try to recall in another | |
| Alzheimer's | Severe memory loss. Result of disconnection of brain cells, begins with loss of STM. Names, faces, dates. | |
| Motivated Forgetting | Block from consciousness memories that are too painful to live. Repression. To deal with guilt, shame, shock. Sigmund Freud | |
| Amnesia | Retrograde - Memories before a particular event is lost. May regain in some days or years, may not regain at all. Anterograde - Inability to make new memories after injury / incident | |
| Psychological Amnesia | Childhood amnesia. Brain areas involving formation and storage are not developed. Stored in non-verbal form. Absence of cues | |
| Drugs, Alcohol, Toxic Effects | Addiction, prescription drugs, etc. | |
| POWER Learning | Prepare. Organize. Work. Evaluate. Rethink |